Ethnic Romanians make up 84 per cent of the population; Hungarians, living mostly in Transylvania, account for 7 per cent; and the Romanies (gypsies) for more than 8 per cent, although an exact count has never been made.

Originating in northwestern India before the 5th century AD, the Romanies have lived in Europe for more than 500 years. They tend to live separately from the Romanians and other ethnic groups. Although they have a rich oral tradition and musical culture, and are skilled craftspeople, the Romanies are generally poor, undereducated, underemployed, and subject to discrimination.

Other minorities include Germans, Ukrainians, Serbs, Croats, Russians, and Turks. The German population has declined because many have emigrated to Germany, but some members of other ethnic groups are finding it difficult to get other countries to accept them.

More than 56 per cent of Romania’s people live in cities.

The official language is Romanian, a Latin-related language belonging to the same family as Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese. The Germans and Hungarians speak their own ethnic languages, and the Romanies speak Romany, an Indo-Aryan language, as well as various local dialects.

Most Romanians are Christian. About 70 per cent belong to the Romanian Orthodox Church; 6 per cent (mostly Hungarians) are Roman Catholic, of which 3 per cent are Uniate (Greek Catholic). There are also significant populations of Jews and Muslims in the country. About 15 per cent of the people claim no religious affiliation. During the Ceauçescu regime, religious organizations were carefully regulated, but freedom of religion has been re-established since the revolution of 1989.

Families in urban areas tend to be smaller than those in rural areas because of a shortage of housing and the higher cost of living in Romania’s cities. The father has the dominant role in the family. Most women work outside the home and are also responsible for the housework and care of the children; men rarely undertake household chores. Grandparents often live with the family.

During the Ceauçescu regime many families were placed under tremendous pressure: a large number of children were put in orphanages, and thousands of rural homes and farms were bulldozed, their occupants being rehoused in deeply resented modern apartment blocks with minimal facilities.

Romanians who live in rural areas marry at a fairly early age and follow local and ethnic customs regarding courtship and marriage. In the past, most students in the cities waited until completion of university or other graduate training before getting married. More recently, however, young people have begun to marry in their last year of college because it has been easier to get housing and a job in a city if they are married.

After years of food shortages, a wide variety of food is now available in Romania—but often at prices most people cannot afford. For breakfast Romanians tend to have eggs, cheese, rolls or other breads, and coffee. Lunch generally consists of soup, meat, potatoes, bread, and a vegetable, with wine or beer to drink. A special plum brandy, tzuica, is also popular. Dinner tends to be similar to lunch, but less substantial. It is the most important meal of the day, when most families gather together to exchange daily news. Romanian specialities include mititei (grilled meatballs), patricieni (grilled sausage), and mamaliga (mashed corn). Pastries are popular for dessert.

Romanians use a knife and a fork for eating, and both hands (but not elbows) are kept above the table during a meal. Drinking a toast is often a part of both formal and informal meals.

Adults commonly greet each other with a handshake, but a man usually waits for a woman to extend her hand first. In cities, some men might greet a woman by kissing her hand. In rural areas, it is usual to greet people individually and to greet strangers. Traditionally, first names are used only by friends and relatives, and by adults when they are addressing children. It is polite to use a person’s title (Doctor, Professor) before the surname.

When visiting someone’s home, guests are usually offered a drink of coffee, tea, brandy, or a popular regional wine, and perhaps other refreshments. Hosts appreciate it when a dinner guest brings flowers or another gift. Weekday evening visits usually end before 11 PM because work begins early in the morning.

Many Romanians play soccer and a large number of other sports including oina, a traditional game similar to baseball. Romanian athletes have achieved notable successes in international competitions, especially in gymnastics, weightlifting, and tennis. Leisure activities include socializing with friends or family, watching television, walking, reading, and going to the theatre. Many also enjoy folk shows, with music and dancing.

Under the Ceauçescu regime, there were only three national holidays: New Year (1 to 2 January), Labour Day (1 to 2 May), and National Liberation Day (23 to 24 August). Religious holidays were not officially recognized and could only be celebrated privately.

Now people may openly celebrate all religious holidays, and there are public holidays at Christmas and Easter. Romania’s National Day is now 1 December. It marks the day in 1918 after World War I when Romania gained territory (which has since been lost) that more than doubled the size of the country. New Year and Labour Day are still public holidays.

Romanian culture is largely derived from the Roman, with strains of Slavic, Magyar (Hungarian), Greek, and Turkish influence. Poems, folk tales, and folk music have always held a central place in the culture. Romanian literature, art, and music attained maturity in the 19th century. Although Romania has been influenced by divergent western trends, the culture remains fundamentally indigenous.

Among the country’s leading painters were Theodor Aman, a portraitist, and the landscape painter Nicolae Grigorescu. Romanian art from 1945 to 1990 was dominated by Soviet realism. A notable contribution to modern concepts of 20th-century art was the work of the Romanian-born French sculptor Constantin Brancusi.

Romanian literature is rich and varied, and may be divided roughly into five periods. The literature from the 15th to the 18th century was primarily religious. The dominant literary form in the late 18th century was history, and a number of major works emphasized the Latin origins and language of the Romanian people. In the century before World War I, Romanian literature reached maturity and reflected national unity. A major figure of the period was Vasile Alecsandri, a narrative poet and dramatist. Others whose work had a profound influence on later writers included the romantic poet Mihail Eminescu and Ion Luca Caragiale, a dramatist whose plays satirized the bourgeois life of the late 19th century. Between the two world wars, Romanian literature largely dealt with national themes, and the novel first came into the foreground. The most outstanding novelist was Mihail Sadoveanu. From the late 1940s through the 1980s, while Romania was under Communist control, the literature was characterized by Soviet realism except for a brief period in the late 1960s when cultural controls were relaxed. The Romanian-born playwright Eugéne Ionesco became famous after World War II while living in France.

A number of Romanian musicians achieved international recognition in the 20th century. Most notable among them were Georges Enesco, violinist and composer, perhaps best known for his Romanian rhapsodies, and the pianist Dinu Lipatti.

The principal libraries are the National Library and the Library of the Academy of Romania, both in Bucharest. The Art Museum of Romania, in Bucharest, contains fine collections of national, Western, and Asian art. Many other museums of art are located throughout the country.

Under the new constitution adopted in 1991, the president, who is directly elected for a four-year term, is head of state and appoints the prime minister. The bicameral legislature consists of a 143-member senate and a Chamber of Deputies whose 341 members are elected for four-year terms. The voting age is 18.

Because of its part in the alliance with France and England in World War I, Romania acquired Bessarabia from Russia and three provinces from the defeated Austro-Hungarian Empire. This more than doubled the size of Romania but alienated it from its neighbours. Soon after the beginning of World War II, Romania was forced to give back much of the territory it had gained. It then allied itself with Germany and in 1941 joined the German army in attacking the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). In 1944 Romania switched to the Allied side, and Russian troops occupied the country. Romania came under Soviet influence, the monarchy was abolished, and a Communist regime was established under Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej. He was succeeded in 1965 by a collective leadership that soon came to be dominated by Nicolae Ceauçescu, who became president in 1967. Ceauçescu broke with the USSR and pursued an independent policy of nationalistic communism. He ruled as a dictator and consolidated the power of the Ceauçescu clan. During the 1970s Romania borrowed heavily from the West in order to fund Ceauçescu's grandiose schemes. During the 1980s he changed course and concentrated on repaying the large accumulated debt, regardless of the enormous hardships to the Romanian people. The extensive internal security system, Securitaté, stifled dissent. Corruption and human-rights violations were widespread.

In 1988 Ceauçescu announced a plan to demolish some 7,000 villages and to rehouse the people in modern agricultural-industrial complexes. When democratic movements swept through Europe in 1989, Ceauçescu vowed nothing would change in Romania. However, in December that year demonstrators took to the streets. When security forces confronted the crowds, rioting broke out, and the people occupied some government facilities. On 22 December the army switched its support to the people’s revolution, and the regime fell after several days of fighting. Ceauçescu and his wife were executed, and the National Salvation Front took control. It removed certain restrictions and organized elections. National Salvation Front leader Ion Iliescu won the election in May 1990, despite his close ties with the former regime. Iliescu's government restricted civil rights; however, some democratic reforms were carried out, including a declaration of freedom of speech. A bicameral parliament was elected and produced a new constitution that was ratified in December 1991. In the September 1992 elections Iliescu was re-elected president.

Iliescu lost the November 1996 elections to reform-oriented Emil Constantinescu of the Democratic Convention. The new centre-right president immediately accelerated free-market reforms, launched an anti-corruption campaign, and actively pursued membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

After World War II Romania embarked on a programme of rapid industrialization. In the 1970s the Ceauçescu government borrowed heavily from the West, but in the 1980s the emphasis changed to repaying this large debt. By 1989 Romania was a net creditor nation, but its people were cold and hungry as both energy and food were rationed. Since the fall of Ceauçescu, rationing has ended.

The country is rich in energy resources, which helps to explain why Ceauçescu was able to pursue a line independent of Moscow—most Eastern bloc states depended on the USSR for their energy requirements. The most important exports have traditionally been manufactured goods, machinery and equipment, fuels, minerals and metals, and foods. During the 1980s Romania increased its trade with Western European nations as part of the effort to repay debt through increased export earnings, and today its main trading partners are Germany, Russia, and Italy. Agriculture remains important. A law established in 1991 provides for the return of farm land to the families who owned it before communism. The law is designed to encourage private ownership and enterprise in the agricultural sector. Unfortunately, land transfer has been very slow and often ineffective. In addition, most farmers lack the credit or capital needed to buy equipment, seed, or fertilizers. Thus, the collective farm system remains.

Free-market reforms moved slowly under President Iliescu. After his election victory in November 1996, President Constantinescu dramatically increased the pace of reforms, including privatization, liberalization of prices, and encouragement of foreign investment. The currency is the leu.

Most working days begin at 7 AM for factory workers and at 8 AM or 9 AM for office workers, and end between 3 PM and 5 PM, depending on the type of business. People work shorter hours on Fridays, and most factories are closed on Saturdays and Sundays. Some shops close for a few hours around lunchtime but then stay open later in the evening. General department stores are open all day. Except for restaurants, cafés, and some privately owned shops, everything is closed on Sundays. Workers get two to four weeks’ holiday, depending on their seniority.

Public transport in the cities is reasonably efficient and inexpensive. The train network links major cities, but many trains are poorly maintained and are not heated in the winter. In rural areas, travel by bicycle and horse- or donkey-drawn carts, called carute, is still common. Few people own cars.

In urban areas, many people have telephones, but communication systems are extremely limited in some rural areas. Often the only source of information in rural areas is the television. Newspapers are fairly rare outside the cities. There is freedom of the press.

Education is compulsory and free for 8 years . Students then seek employment, enter vocational training or prepare for a university education. Most students complete some education beyond the required eight years. Today’s university students are among the most vocal supporters of political change.

There are many health problems in Romania. As a result of the practice of giving newborn babies blood transfusions if they appeared anaemic, a large number of children contracted acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) from contaminated needles and blood. Many women are also infected. Hepatitis B is also widespread. Illnesses associated with heavy pollution are common. Health facilities are often poorly equipped and understaffed. Large groups of orphaned children do not receive adequate attention or care, and conditions in psychiatric hospitals are often poor. The government has been addressing these problems with foreign assistance.